Spiritual Growth through Various Spiritual Disciplines

From time immemorial, spiritual growth has strengthened the faith of believers and has helped them become closer and made them believe more in their religious dogma. This is also evident in Christianity. From the time of Jerusalem’s height, discipline has always found a part in Christian beliefs and in strengthening the faith of the congregation. Over the years, people have learned that particular kinds of disciplines when practiced help them keep the connection between God and themselves open and help keep alive their passion towards God.It is worth noting early on that these spiritual disciplines are not the surest way to heaven and that there is no concrete account that they can even make you a holy person. On the other hand, being able to practice spiritual discipline can heighten your desire, awareness, and love of God by stripping down the barriers that you put up within yourself and other barriers that others have created for you that hinder you from being closer to God (Benner, 2002). A practice or activity can be considered a spiritual discipline when it takes a specific part of your way of life and turns it toward God.A spiritual discipline is, when practiced faithfully and regularly, a habit or regular pattern in your life that repeatedly provides you the opportunity to become closer to God, opens the practitioner’s heart to God and makes one malleable and open to spiritual guidance and opinion. Christian devotional practice is centered primarily on the holy trinity – Jesus Christ, God the Father and the Holy Spirit (Foster, 1998). In this study, we put special attention on a comprehensive analysis of spiritual growth through the practice of six kinds of discipline and how these are able to contribute to spiritual growth.In the succeeding parts of the paper, we will focus our study on spiritual disciplines such as meditation, prayer, fasting, study, service and simplicity. We will also provide a discussion of these particular dis ciplines and how they are able to make people grow closer to a perfection of relationship with Christ. The first part of the study is dedicated to a discussion of spiritual growth thru meditation. Essentially, meditation is subdivided into three parts: Concentration, Meditation and Contemplation. The first part of meditation is concentration.Concentration is being able to take special attention on a certain point, topic or area. It entails 100% of taking special attention on a single thought, in our case 100% focus to God. Meditation can be achieved by being able to clear one’s mind of unnecessary opinions and distractions as this can make it easier for people to be more connected to God. Concentration brings people to another level of consciousness that promotes for clearer thought and a heightened sense of feelings. This precursor must be achieved in order for people to become in a meditative state. The second stage of meditation is actually meditation itself.The uninterrup ted flow of one’s Attention, then, is Meditation. By being fixated in a single object, a person’s thought is totally focused on that object. This is the clearest and most important aspect of meditation. With this, the purest opinions and feelings are released between the person and God. Through meditation, God has a true and clear connection with the person that helps provide a clear and uninterrupted line of communication. Spiritual meditation creates for a very clear communication between God and the person, which promotes for better understanding of God and a first hand experience of God’s presence.This is also evident in order religious orders such as Buddhism that takes special attention on intense meditation to cleanse the mind and body of evil and wrongdoing. Through continuous Meditation, one becomes one with the object of one’s Concentration. The third level is contemplation. By means of meditation one is able to acquire a lot of pure experiences that has to reflect on and analyzed. Contemplation is a method that helps people clearly explain and analyze the events that had transpired during meditation.Contemplation often takes more time than the meditation itself, as it is important to clearly understand what the Lord has communicated to the person (Keating n. d. ). This can be in form of a group with a facilitator or contemplating alone. At any case, what is important is the resulting decision made that is important, regardless of contemplative medium. One can meditate by means of study. In studying, one is in a meditative state that is focused on the holy scriptures of God. With study, we are encapsulated within the scriptures of God’s word.In studying the word of God, we are led to deeper meditative state and we can gain more knowledge and be closer to God through his word (Beers, 2006). It has been said that pure existence can only be experienced when the mind becomes purely at ease with the environment he/she is in. In order for us to be truly one with God, we have to imbibe into our daily routine a portion of meditation in order to experience, even a little at the very least, pure existence and a unbroken line of communication with God in order to further develop our spirituality and relationship with God.With pure meditation, it is really hard to understand the words of God. Our opinions and speculations are like a veil covering our true Nature. In addition to this, a most serious problem is when we identify with a certain mind-structure, the personality or ego, and the body. But even with so much of this demystifying our meditative state, meditation is used to unveil our true Nature and relationship with the Lord, we might still continue to cling to this false personality and fear its dissolution (Foster, 1978).Since we cannot simply order the mind to be still, we give it something to hang on to. This is to facilitate effective meditation that would help us greatly in opening a pure lin e of communication with the Lord. Words designed for that purpose are called mantras. In Christianity’s case, a mantra can be of the form of a prayer or Christian ritual. The application of mantras during meditation is called transcendental meditation. Mantras are repeated mentally for the sole purpose to calm the mind, remove inhibitions and clear out any unnecessary opinions (Beers, 2006).By continually driving out unnecessary thought can the mind be completely â€Å"silent† and only when the mind comes to a complete standstill are we enabled to identify with the silent observer. Spiritual meditation is essentially a mental exercise that drives the mind to take special attention on the Lord in order to remove all opinions not relevant to the Lord and create a connection between him for effective communication and to further our relationship with the Lord. The next kind of spiritual discipline that is closely linked to meditation is prayer. The second discipline is pr ayer.Spiritual discipline is not spiritual discipline if there is no prayer, of course, is much more than a spiritual discipline; it is a way of life. However it should be noted that prayer, as with all spiritual disciplines, should never be taken only as a discipline and nothing more. It would be a rather low-voltage spiritual life in which prayer was chiefly undertaken as a discipline. On one hand, prayer is a very potent practice for opening our lives to God (Catechism of the Catholic Church n. d. ). In present times, it is very important to practice prayer as a discipline.In our culture today, a considerable margin of Christians’ attention span is severely impaired. In prayer we attend our minds to God, and all too often that attention lasts for a few seconds. We may be starting off with professing our faith by means of saying the Lord’s Prayer but it is not long before our minds tend to wander off and we start to forget who we had addressed in the first place (Tho mpson 2005). It is for this reason that we must undertake prayer as a spiritual discipline in order to enable ourselves to attain the single-mindedness necessary to attend to the God-who-is-present.It is also vital for us to understand that prayer, just as every other discipline, is a learning process. We will find ourselves distracted. We will notice our minds wandering among the countless concerns of the day. However, as we continue in the paths of prayer, our meanders will be shorter and less frequent. Prayer is conversation or communication with God. It involves both speaking and listening. So often we pray as if it were a monologue. But prayer is so much more than a one-way communication towards God.As a matter of fact, the most diligent person that practices the discipline of prayer knows that prayer is more about just listening towards God rather than talking to him. In addition, prayer is also about being open to God for change. Prayer is recognition that God is God and we a re not, and so in prayer we yield our desires to God's. As much as people might say it is, prayer is not at all complicated. Prayer is not just about saying the right combination of words and thought but it is the right orientation of our outlook towards God.In addition, prayers do not need to be flowery. Those kinds of prayers are either said in order to impress others or just to manipulate God. A prayer is not something that is done during mealtime, in times of church service or in times of distress. It is not just about bowing our heads, clasping our hands together, and closing our eyes. If we really consider the definition of prayer as something that is really paying attention to God, we really can conduct the discipline of prayer without actually stopping.What is important is that in whatever thing we do, we do it with the awareness that God is always there beside us (Thompson 2005). With that in mind, we can take special attention all of what we do and offer it to him. To pray without ceasing means that wherever we go and in whatever we are doing, we go and do with the awareness that God is always watching whatever we do. We listen through prayer and meditation for his opinion on everything that we do in our lives. We look at others and ourselves through His eyes.We ask God to show us the right path and the right decision for whatever we do. In prayer God invites us to join him in his community and wants us to lead our lives in his ways. The third part of the spiritual discipline is fasting. Biblically, fasting is abstaining from food, drink, sleep or sex to take special attention on a period of spiritual growth. Specifically, we humbly deny something of the flesh to glorify God, enhance our spirit, and go deeper in our prayer life. Christian fasting isn't some kind of a â€Å"work† that's commanded by Christ or required by Scripture.On the other hand, it doesn’t imply that fasting isn't suggested to be part of our spiritual growth. Fasting is often linked to prayer and meditation as well. Too often, the focus of fasting is on the lack of food. On the other hand, the purpose of fasting is to take our eyes off the things of this world and instead take special attention on God. Fasting is a way to demonstrate to God and to ourselves that we are serious about our relationship with Him. Although fasting in Scripture is almost always a fasting from food, there are other ways to fast.It can actually be as easy as giving up something temporarily so that you can better focus on God can actually be considered fasting. It is recommended that fasting be limited to a given period of time, more so when food is part of the fasting. It is important to note that fasting is never intended to punish the flesh but to let we take special attention on God (Catechism of the Catholic Church n. d. ). In addition, fasting according to scripture is not a prerequisite. However it is highly recommended. The only reason indicated within Holy Scri pture to fast is to develop a deeper relationship with God.Christian fasting is more than just not letting ourselves eat or deny ourselves of some kind of passion or thing that we crave for but it is a sacrifice of something that we hold dear in order to offer it to the Lord. Fasting imbibes humility and loosens us from the chains of worldly materials and needs. This concept of fasting is not a one-day thing – it is a lifestyle of servant living for God and others. The next kind of spiritual discipline that is the focus of our study is simplicity. Simplicity, as many people would have it, is not merely having less stress in life and having more fun and recreation.But, simplicity is a spiritual discipline that when practiced moves us closer to God and removes us from the chains of worldly possessions. Some people turn to God in order to simplify their lives. In some cases, this can happen but this would entirely depend on what God’s plans for you (Boa, 2001). But all to o often, God makes our lives more complicated. God continually tests us in order to determine our faith and love in him. As we are continually tested, God’s love then calls us to act. Part of what makes a Christian spirituality ‘simple' is that is has a single attention: Christ.All else radiates from there or is to be set aside. Spiritual discipline trains us to stay on course when our lives are rocked out of normality. But if we do not stay steady and stay the course, we lose our connection and ourselves to God. Christian spirituality helps make life simpler and happy to live. When we chase a wealthy life style, we thread a very difficult and often unholy affair: the standards keep on changing day in and day out, and our anxiety never ceases. That is why Christian contemplatives and mystics speak so often of detachment.By taking away the direction on acquiring and amassing wealth, we have more of ourselves made free in order to direct ourselves to take special attentio n on learning to love correctly, to meditate towards God, to provide the necessary aid to those that need it, to learn more about our Lord through scripture or learning how to depend on the Spirit. Simplicity guides to so many other spiritual disciplines such as giving time to others – service. By means of simplicity, you are actually attuned more to the needs of others and can actually help them, as you are not preoccupied with other material things in life.Service can also be a form of simplicity as you provide help to others. With service, you are closer to God as you fulfill one of the very tenets of Christianity, and that is not to just be closer to God but more importantly be closer and be in a communal relationship with the people around you (Ortberg 2004). In life, you cannot have everything. You always have to choose between something. You can't follow Christ and chase wealth. Most of the time these two paths go in extremely opposite directions. The simple life, the contented life, means that we have learned to trust God rather than worldly possessions.People currently worry so much about money that they forget the essential things in life. We think that money will take away all our worries but in reality money will only produce more and more worries. Take for instance the people that win the lottery and just go bankrupt. Riches and abundance are like a wolf in sheep’s clothing. They come in reeling in the bait, they are clad as sheep’s clothing pretending to be security against anxieties and they then become the object of anxiety that in the first place they try to remove.Worldly possessions not only take away our concentration towards God but also make us closer to evil (Mcknight 2004). In conclusion, prayer, meditation, study of the holy scripture, service to one’s fellow men, simplicity and fasting all guide people who do these spiritual disciplines closer to God. Each on its own can contribute to making this person clo ser to God. It is also evident that each spiritual discipline leads to the other; moreover, everything is intertwined and every part of each spiritual discipline is founded on another kind of discipline.This is strongly apparent in existing studies and prescriptions that it is important to practice not just only one but many of these spiritual disciplines if one were to aspire to become closer to God. As a concluding remark, these disciplines are not made in order to be just followed and it will logically guide to being saved from eternal damnation. Instead, these are carried out in order to be a guide for us to be ever closer to God. We use these disciplines as tools to make us closer to God but inevitably, it will all redound to the choice we make whether or not we would want to authentically accept God in our lives.

Trade vs. Protectionism

Arjan Chhatwal Poli 305/4 ID: 6178332 International Political Economy Prof. E. Bloodgood Trade vs. Protectionism Trade between countries has been going on for centuries. Movement of goods and services began as a mean for nations to obtain what they couldn’t produce themselves.With the introduction of Ricardo’s â€Å"comparative advantage† – which illustrated how all countries that participate in trade benefit from it-, trade began to focus on what a country is better at producing a product or a service and which country can produce it at a lower cost. Nowadays, developed countries and international organization promote free trade, open borders, and liberalization of the market intensively. However, many of those core countries also practice protectionism in order to shield their industry from foreign competition.This poses a great problem to developing countries which are forced by core countries to practice free trade but would actually benefit from prote ctionist measures. In order to represent this situation, I will analyze the economic situation of two countries with very different economies: Pakistan, representing the developing countries and the United States, which represent the developed countries. I will compare their economic situation and policies under the Bush administration and Musharaf’s government.In this essay, I will demonstrate that our international economic system is very hypocritical in the sense that the countries that would benefit from and help other countries by practicing free trade are practicing protectionism, and those who would benefit from protectionism are forced to implement free trade policies. First, I will observe and describe those two main economic policies: protectionism and free trade.Then I will concentrate on the economic situation in Pakistan and the United States in order to illustrate what use countries are making of free trade and protectionism and, on the other hand, what face the y are showing to the world. Free Trade: A Market Model of Deregulation Free trade is a market model which promotes trade liberalization by the reduction of trade barriers. This model was promoted by the economist David Ricardo in the late 18th century and beginning of the 19th century. He coined the â€Å"comparative advantage† theory. Comparative advantage† is a theory that promotes free trade by demonstrating how trade between countries benefits all parties because of the different opportunity costs. Every country can produce a good at a cheaper price than another country and has to focus on producing and exporting that particular good. If all countries do so and specialize in the production of the good that is cheaper to produce in their country, they can trade those products with each other at lower costs than if they produced all of the goods themselves.Practicing free trade means the abandonment of government restrictions in the flow of goods, workers and services across borders. Those restrictions include taxes, quotas, tariffs, and subsidies. This economic model is based on deregulation and on the elimination of binding rules on corporations. Free trade also prohibits government to give financial advantages to businesses through tax cuts in order to make them more competitive against foreign industries. This results in the elimination of monopolies and oligopolies in countries by allowing full competition.However, negative outcomes of economic deregulation includes less respect and commitment to health, labor, and environmental laws and can help multinationals outcompete smaller local industries. Another important aspect of the free trading model is the principle of Most Favored Nation which basically requires all members of trading agreements to treat other members equally. Nowadays, the biggest promoter of Free Trade is the World Trade Organization, which claims that removing trade barriers would lead to the end of poverty around the wor ld.The WTO argues that in opposition to free trade, protectionism doesn’t help promoting economic expansion. Free trade policies, it is argued by the WTO and major developed countries, promote growth. The free trade model is used by the WTO to rescue developing countries and help them develop economically more efficiently. This means that in order to receive money from the WTO, developing countries are required to follow â€Å"adjustment policies†, also know as â€Å"structural adjustments†. Those policies all push towards economic liberalization.They include cutting back on social spending, devaluation of the currency, trade liberalization, removing price control and subsidies and privatization, better governance and elimination of corruption. The WTO argues that the benefits that the countries will get from free trade outweigh those costs, which include poverty and environmental costs just to name a few. The WTO actually admits that in the short-term, free tra de will lead to inequalities but in the end, the wealth accumulated by the big businesses will trickle down and most people will benefit from the free trade model.However, as J. W. Smith argues: â€Å"That current free trade is just as unequal as the mercantilist trade it replaced is easily demonstrated. The structural adjustments imposed upon weak nations as necessary for free trade are the opposite policies under which every successful nation developed. That they developed under the philosophies of Adam Smith is a myth designed to hide a continuation of plunder through unequal trades. †[1] The paradox here is that, more and more, the developed countries who promote free trade actually practice protectionism.The problem is that free trade can only lead to fair trade if every country practices it, especially core countries that have the means to practice free trade. Nowadays, however, developed countries promote free trade and force developing countries to practice it but the y themselves hypocritically practice protectionism. This penalizes poor countries who are not ready for the global market yet. It is also often noted that even if poor countries practice free trade, it won’t necessary lead to major successes.It obviously results in higher income but social inequalities remain in most cases. This can be called â€Å"Growth without social development†, and free trade is obviously not solving this tendency. Protectionism: A Regulatory Economic Policy Protectionism is an economic policy which restricts trade between countries by imposing economic barriers and policies. We usually tend to believe that protectionism is only a question of tariffs. However, government do have ccess to many other tools to protect their industries, including quotas, government regulations such as anti-dumping laws to protect domestic industries from competition of foreign enterprises, trade restrictions and exchange rate manipulation. Those policies make the pro duction of goods cheaper for the industry that is granted the money or the preferential treatment. Domestic industries can therefore sell their product outside of the country for cheaper. In that perspective, pprotectionism is an isolationist doctrine which, some argue, leads to unfair competition.The main goal of protectionism is to handicap foreign industry. This economic model is associated with neo-mercantilism, which main objective is to maintain a positive trade balance. Protectionism is often practiced by countries that seem to be free-traders, such as the United States and the UK, in order to protect their favorite or influential industries. â€Å"Rich countries’ protectionism† includes subsidies to local industries such as agriculture and textiles.Core countries have the funds to practice that kind of protectionism while developing countries that would actually benefit from protectionism are asked to deregulate their economy. â€Å"UNCTAD estimated that rolli ng back [rich country] protectionism in this area could create additional export earnings of up to $700 billion for developing countries, to be realizable over a 10-year period. This is less than 5 per cent of the combined GDP of industrial countries, but could absorb an important part of unemployed labour in the South and generate a vent for surplus†[2].It is often argued that developed countries are taking away from developing countries what helped them develop their own economy: protectionism policies. Protectionism is necessary to economic development in the sense that it helps build a strong foundation for a strong economy. Protectionism is essential for any developing countries to help their infant industries develop; become mature and competitive for the international market.It is hard for countries to enter market if they are forced to practice free trade; they may need help of protectionism policies in order to protect their infant new industries. The United Statesâ⠂¬â„¢ economy is a perfect example of what â€Å"rich countries’ protectionism† is. By examining its situation, it is easy to understand how developed countries show the face of a free trading nation but practice protectionism interiorly. The United States: The Face of a Free Trading Nation?The United States have always been a model of a Free Trade economy and have always promoted economic liberalization all around the world. When we observe the country’s practices and economic policies from the outside, it is clear that the USA is a firm believer in free trade. Indeed, the country is involved in many free trade agreements all around the world. Those include Free Trade agreements with Australia (2004), CAFTA-DR (2005), with numerous Latin American countries such as Chile (2004) and Columbia (2006), without forgetting NAFTA (1994).United States take great pride in its participation in international trade and promoting free trade between countries. Presently, inte rnational trade is primordial to the economy of the country and accounts for around a quarter of the USA’s GDP as it was mentioned by the Conference on a New Architecture for the U. S. National Accounts in 2004. Governmental economists all agree that Free trade agreements are necessary in order to promote rapid economic growth by increasing competition, cooperation between countries, and specialization.The United States follows Germany as the second most economically open country in the world. Inside a Free Trading Nation: A Hidden Protectionist Economy The United States takes good pride in proclaiming themselves as a non-discriminatory economy and a promoter of open global markets. While USA gives the image to the world of being a pure liberal economy, the country practices protectionism regularly, which shocks many trading partners and developing countries. This can be called the problem of the â€Å"Double Standard†.Rich countries promote the free trade ideology but in practice, they protect their own industry. This situation of double standard and of the USA promoting free trade but practicing protectionism was explained by the eleventh president of the World Bank, Robert Zoellick: â€Å"In order to promote free trade, the US has to manage the home front and the international front. And on the home front the only way that we can continue to get support from the American people for open markets and trade is to use our domestic and international laws to the fullest. †[3]For a society that calls itself a free-trading one, it is quite ironical and even hypocrite that, in 2002, Bush announced the imposition of new tariffs on several influential industries such as the steel industry and the agricultural sector. While developing countries, in order to please foreign investors and international economic agencies, keep on lowering their trade barriers, the USA has, over the last two years, increased its subsidies to farmers, raised tariffs on s teel imports, and still hasn’t agreed to sign the WTO agreement to the patent rights of its pharmaceutical companies.Since the election of George W. Bush, the economy of the United States has proven to be quite protectionist: â€Å"The steel tariff and the farm bill attracted the most attention, but they are part of a broader picture that includes the punitive (and almost completely unjustified) tariff on Canadian softwood lumber and the revocation of Caribbean trade privileges. When it comes to free trade, the Bush administration is all for it — unless there is some political cost, however small, to honoring its alleged principles†[4]Let us examine more in details the three most important policies of the last decade that can help us understand how the United States is giving an image of a free-trade economy but is actually practicing protectionism. The first and very striking example of this protectionism is the Bush administration deciding to protect its steel industry which has been facing very important economic problems because of the European Union competition. The second example would be the case of the automobile industry. The Japanese automobile industry has always been a strong competitor for the USA industry.This is why the United States imposed, from â€Å"In May 1981, with the American auto industry mired in recession, Japanese car makers agreed to limit exports of passenger cars to the United States. This â€Å"voluntary export restraint† (VER) program, initially supported by the Reagan administration, allowed only 1. 68 million Japanese cars into the U. S. each year. The cap was raised to 1. 85 million cars in 1984, and to 2. 30 million in 1985, before the program was terminated in 1994. †[5] The Farm Bill of 2002 also reflects very well the protectionist tendencies of the country.This Bill distributed more than $190 billion to USA farmers and agriculture businesses around the country, and this over the next 10 years. This Bill was passed in order to help the agricultural sector overcome the difficulties it faced due to international competition. Those subsidies will make it harder for foreign producers to compete against the agricultural industry: â€Å"Third World producers will find it harder to sell to the US market and, since the USA exports 25 per cent of its farm production, they will find it harder to sell in other international markets or to resist competition from US products in their home markets.The disposal of increased US surpluses as ‘food aid' is likely to compound the loss of livelihoods. †[6] While rich countries such as the United States can afford to practice protectionism, developing nations are forced to open their economy to free trade. Pakistan, the second country we will analyze in this essay is the perfect example of a country that would benefit from protectionism policies but is forced to liberalize their economy in order to receive funds from the W TO.The United States and Pakistan have been interacting on the international scene since the late 1950s, soon after Pakistan’s independence. This relationship has been successful but has also suffered from intermittent political conflicts, which reflects pretty well the complexity of the geopolitics of South East Asian region. After the events of September 11, Pakistan and the United States became even closer than before because the Bush administration relied on the help of Musharraf’s military dictatorship to eliminate terrorism in the region, mainly in Afghanistan which has a common border with Pakistan.The main difference between the United States during its early stage of development (1880s) and Pakistan’s development phase (late 1990s, 21st century) is that the United States weren’t dominated and repressed economically by major powers and international trade organization such as the IMF and the WTO, imposing economic liberalization and tariff limits on them. The United States weren’t subject to neo-colonialism like Pakistan is today. Protectionism in Pakistan: A Focus on the Textile Industry South Asia has long been seen as one of the most protectionist region in the world.As the World Bank states in the calculations of the GDP growth rates in the World Development Indicators, trade within the region accounts for less than 2% of the GDP which is minimal compared to 20% in East Asia. The region lacks diversity within the market and the products that are traded. In addition, most countries of the region, including Pakistan, still used up until recently import-substitution policies which limited trade possibilities within the region and outside the region. Trade was also hampered by political tensions, especially between India and Pakistan.Protectionism is Pakistan is mostly directed towards one of the most important industry in the country: the textile industry which accounts for more than 60% of the country’s expor ts. Pakistan under Musharraf saw the introduction of few protectionist policies concentrated towards this influential industry. In the policy speech of 2005-2006, the Minister of Commerce announced that all textile exporters that would â€Å"register their products with Pakistani Trade marks in foreign countries for export purposes will be provided subsidy equal to 50% of official fees of such registrations. [7]. Support to this important industry was instituted to help local businesses improve the quality of their product and compete against foreign industries in order to increase the Pakistanis textile industry’s market share. This protectionist policy was put in practice to reassure the industry, which was afraid after the quota restrictions were removed in 2005. It was also introduced to protect the industry from potential job losses and the loss of potential export if the textile industry wouldn’t reinvent itself.The 2005-2006 trade policy speech focused on allev iating costs for Pakistanis businesses in order to make the local industries more competitive on the international scene. Protectionism can also be practiced in the form of tax exemption for local industries. Musharaf’s government in the Federal Budget of 2005-2006 granted tax cuts to prominent industries in the country, including textile industry, sports goods, carpet industry, leather, and surgical instruments. In addition, the imports of necessary materials for these industries are also exempted from duties.Pakistan’s Economy: A Forced Free Trading nation Trade liberalization in Pakistan began in the late 1980s and developed even more during the 1990s under Musharraf’s military government. Today, Pakistan is part of various trade agreements, all leading to economic liberalization. Those include the Pakistan-Malaysia Free Trade Agreement, Pakistan-China Free Trade Agreement, Pakistan-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement, Pakistan-Malaysia Early Harvest Program, Paki stan-China Early Harvest Program and Pakistan-Iran agreement.When I briefly presented free trade, I mentioned the â€Å"growth without development† problem that developing countries face nowadays. This is a tendency to grow economically but without promoting social development. It is the result of free trade and is perfectly well illustrated by Pakistan’s situation. The more recent budget of Pakistan is mirrors this tendency, by showing commitment to neo-liberal policies, IMF led-policies. The budget focuses on pleasing the developed countries and on macro-economics rather than on developing the country itself. The budget focuses on the military which accounts for 20% and repaying the debt, 31%.Trade liberalization has been, since Musharraf’s entry in power, another priority within the budget. As the World Bank argues, liberalizing the Pakistanis economy would lead to an increase of 8$ billion if trade barriers were lifted. â€Å"Annual trade between India and Pakistan, the bulk of which is routed through Dubai, is currently estimated at US$1 billion, but could be as great as US$9 billion if barriers are lifted. †[8] In 1999, the Asian Development Bank granted a 300$ million loan to support the Government's Trade, Export Promotion and Industry (TEPI) Program.This program was approved by the ADB, the World Bank and the IMF because it was based on liberalization of trade in Pakistan. TEPI is based on the elimination of nontariff barriers and on the increased access for exporters to the Pakistani market. This program was basically created to end import substitution policies and promote exports by giving as many advantages to local industries as to foreign companies. This program focuses on the privatization of industries and meets all criteria stated by the World Bank concerning quotas, subsidies, and customs.This facilitates foreign investors and promotes economic growth, proven by the fact that â€Å"After more than three decades of near stagnation in per-capita incomes during 1950–80, South Asia showed signs of growth beginning in the 1980s that accelerated in the 1990s and beyond. †[9] Pakistan’s economy used to be based on import substitution and was very little diversified. Taking into consideration those obstacles to trade, the Pakistani ministry of Commerce instituted a program based on diversification of exports and market opening for an increased access to facilitate trade.Pakistani economy has continuously followed WTO required adjustment of liberalization in order to remove trade barriers and obstacles to import. Following the WTO rhetoric, the government argues in favor of opening the market because in order to increase its exports, the country has to encourage imports as well as stated in the trade policy speech of 2005-2006: â€Å"It must be realized that no country has been able to enhance its exports significantly without liberalizing its import regime. †[10] Following this path, exports did increase consistently as well as imports which reached $20. 23 billion at the end of last year according to that same Trade Policy Speech. The irony that we face after having analyzed the economic situation of both countries is that the now-developed countries benefited during their development from an active state that helped them build their industries and protect. As the 1995 OECD Report showed, developed countries achieved growth starting in the 1950s under very protectionist states. â€Å"The unprecedented growth in per capita income in several developed countries during the period 1950-1973, was also achieved under activist states.When they followed the ‘bad' policies of establishing full welfare states with stricter financial market regulations, corporatist wage bargaining institutions, investment co-ordination and in some cases nationalized industries, even the now developed countries saw an exponential increase in their own growth. †[11] However, countries that wish to develop nowadays are required not only to practice free trade but not to use protectionism policies. This is unfair in the sense that they have to develop in an environment that doesn’t promote or help their growth.Developing countries would benefit and even need higher tariffs and trade barriers in order to protect their industry from the more and more competitive and aggressive trading environment. This current tendency is referred to as â€Å"kicking away the ladder†. Core countries act the way they do to ensure their domination over developing nations and keep the poor countries in a vicious circle, as they remain dependant on export of primary and raw materials, not being able to move up the trade ladder. This harms developing countries that struggle in this free trade world economy.In addition, imposing free trade on developing nations actually illustrates the focus of the WTO on short-term benefits and forgetting about the import ance of long-term goals such as deepening the industrialization of the periphery countries. The imposed policies of the WTO prevent the developing countries of using protectionist policies to help their industries develop. Several experiences have already proven that the pressures to liberalize countries’ economy can do more harm than good to new economies.Nonetheless, the WTO continues to force developing countries to open their market and reduce their trade barriers. Liberalization and free trade, although they have great outcomes for developed countries, also lead to greater inequality between the core and the periphery. â€Å"According to one estimate, the Uruguay Round’s combined liberalization increased global economic welfare by $75 billion, of which almost $70 billion went to developed countries, $5 billion to Newly Industrialized Economies (NIEs; Korea, Singapore and Taiwan), and none to developing countries taken together. [12]. Even with such numbers, devel oping countries are still forced to join the free trade movement and the WTO and developed countries continue to promote the benefits of free trading. Today, while the IMF and the WTO force developing countries around the world to practice free trade by reducing trade barriers, Pakistan included, the USA keeps on to implementing protectionist policies in order to save industries in danger or suffering from temporary discomfort.This leads to a greater gap between the productivity of developed and developing countries. The factor that is important to note here is that today’s developed countries once protected their industries behind protectionist policies, but are now promoting free trade in countries that are trying, just like they did, to succeed economically. The developed countries of today reached their economic prosperity through protectionism economic policies, and then started practicing free trade.This irony now rules international trade. It is clear that there is a p roblem concerning trade between countries in the sense that there is an inequality in the terms of trade imposed on developed countries and developing countries. Free trade can only lead to prosperity if all countries benefit from equal treatment. Even then however free trade can lead to economic prosperity but won’t necessarily lead to social development, which is what developing countries need the most.

Intro to ethics Essay

The career field that I have chosen is public relations which also has a focus in journalism. Since journalism is often known as the 4th government branch because it watches over the actions of the other branches there are many controversial issues involved which required applied ethics to work through. Business ethics can be seen very strongly in public relations and journalism because there are often conflicts between advertisers which is here the largest amount of revenue comes from and editorial. For example, an article may be getting ready to run about how someone was killed by a person who illegally obtained a gun. The article may spark some gun control arguments and opinions. In the same issue of the paper there might be a firearm store placing a large display advertisement for a sale they are having. There is a dilemma there that will need applied business ethics to decide what to do. Do they run both anyways, or stick with the advertiser and trim down the details of the article so there is not as much focus on gun control? There are legal rights issues that required applied ethics reasoning also associated with public relations and journalism. There are certain details and name and things that can only be printed based on specific things such as a person being certain age and circumstances. Some areas consider it illegal to print in the obituaries that someone committed suicide. Sometimes though if it is a public matter that many people witnessed it is had to avoid printing that a suicide occurred without people know there is information being with held. In addition to this there is also always the possibility of sources being incorrect and the information you print being libelous to someone. Finally there is computer and information ethics in applied ethics. This category can be seen in public relations and journalism in much the same way as legal issues with being slanderous or libelous to someone or a company. Depending on what sources one use there may be false information coming from the computer and information. A professional in public relations of journalism has to take the responsibility to fact check and check the credentials of the sources they are using. The responsibility to check facts does not lay with the source, but with the journalist. If they received incorrect information that could have been spotted if fact checking was done they are negligent and can face very serious consequences. Fact checking cannot only hurt the legally, but also ethically. The people, businesses and other things that are written about are affected deeply. Sometimes there has to be a choice made as to whether a story is worthy of printing if it is going to harm someone or someone’s family members. Most of the time the ethical choices that have to be made in public relations and journalism stem from not which side of a topic to be on, but what to put out to the public on topics. For example, even if a reporter feels that abortion is completely wrong they cannot express this opinion. They have to write for both sides just giving the facts to what things each side says. They could be thinking abut writing to persuade people on why abortion is wrong, but the ethical decision is to step back and understand where both sides of the argument are coming from.

Post-editing and Translation Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Post-editing and Translation Management - Essay Example Current TM software enables profession or domain-based customization, which limits the scope of substitutions, allowed and, therefore, improves output, especially where formulaic or formal language is required. As such, it would be expected that TM in cases involving legal and official documents can produce more palatable output as compared to less standardized text and conversations. Output quality in TM can also be enhanced through human intervention, such as the unambiguous identification of words that can be considered proper names in the text, which enables more accurate translation (Somers, 2013). The TM process can be described in terms of decoding the source text’s meaning, as well as re-encoding in the target language supported by a complex cognitive operation. Post-editing refers to the process through which machine-generated translations are improved with little manual intervention or labor, and is closely linked to the concept of pre-editing. During translation of the text, it is possible to achieve best results through source text pre-editing, such as through controlled language principles, after which the machine output is post-edited (Somers, 2013). Post-editing is quite different from editing that refers to the improvement of text generated by humans, also known in translation as revision. Text that has been post-edited could be revised afterward in order to ensure that language choice are of the best quality. Post-editing generally involves correction of output from translation, specifically to ensure that the output is of high quality. The degree or extent of post-editing may differ, which is dictated by the translation management criteria, and may either be full post-editing or light post-editing. Light post-editing involves minim al human intervention and is mainly meant to ensure that the output is readable, in which case the post-editor expects that the client only needs the text for inbound reasons (Somers, 2013). Full post-editing, on the other hand, seeks to make a text more stylistically appropriate by achieving improved quality of text for outbound and inbound purposes.

Dentify the basic provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act that Essay

Dentify the basic provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act that specifically deal with ethics and Independence and research how this Act has affected auditors since it was established in 2002 - Essay Example An example is the collapse of Enron. Unethical conduct on the part of Corporate CEOs and Audit Firms was responsible (Rezzy, 2007). To avoid a repeat of the same, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act was passed to instill ethics and instigate independence auditors. The essay covers specific provisions of the statute intended to promote ethics and independence to demonstrate how the act has affected auditors. Section 101 created the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board as an independent body with the onus to monitor and regulate the activities of auditors (Freeman, 2009). The board has since ensured that auditors comply with the provisions of the legislation as well as comply with the code of ethics for persons in the auditing business. Since the introduction of the Board, it is believed that audit malpractice has reduced due to the stiffer penalties that threaten implicated firms as a result of the Board’s investigations according to Romano (Romano, 2005). Title III from section 301 to 308 endeavors to promote ethics by obligating company executives to be personally responsible for the financial reports of the corporate, whether quarterly, semi-annually or annually. To avoid malpractice, CEOs and other chief management staff are required to inspect and pass as accurate the financial statements of the company before they are released. This in turn makes the officers personally liable if any misstatements are made that could be misleading as to the financial soundness of the company. Green states that any officer required to append signature on a financial report must only do so after doing due diligence using their knowledge to make sure that everything stated therein is true to avoid personal liability (Green, 2004). This has had the effect of reducing fraud as corporate executives struggle to ensure that financial reports are as accurate as

Buzzard LTD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Buzzard LTD - Essay Example Accordingly, the SWOT will not be a comprehensive treatment of strategic position, but will speak to a few of the known specifics. We can use the financial information provided to offer some accurate shareholder analysis. It has been noted that the purpose of preparing "financial reports on a regular basis..." is to "influence the decisions of users of the information produced" (Atrill and McLaney, 1997: 2); and through the use of standard ratio analysis, we will be able to evaluate the provided statements to come to a reasonable understanding of the company's financial strength. That analysis will permit us to report the current financial condition to shareholders and evaluate Buzzard LTD's operational efficiencies in light of its quality and customer satisfaction achievements. Any company that wishes to remain successfully in business must engage in strategic thinking. This concept is particularly true in the modern marketplace, where information technologies and other manufacturing efficiencies have increased the need for competitive intelligence. Fleisher and Bensoussan make a compelling case for this when they state: Strategic thinking is necessary today because our organizations compete in an increasingly global, postindustrial, knowledge- and information-based competitive environment as opposed to the slower paced, domestic, industrial competitive environment of only a few decades ago. The hierarchical, linear models that dominated management thinking, and in some cases still do, have given way to newer, more flexible, perpetually self-reorganizing, network-based arrangements. No senior executive can reasonably be expected to know the entire competitive terrain well enough to correctly strategize in the same was as the great industrial and military leaders of the past. This pressing need for strategic thinking is why organizations need to improve and enhance their competitive intelligence. (2002: 5) The primary component used for informing the competitive intelligence process is predicated upon analyzing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) facing the organization. The limited information provided does not permit a comprehensive analysis of these elements, but we will be able to focus on key parts of each segment and derive some competitive intelligence regarding the market position of the company. SWOT TABLE FOR BUZZARD LTD. Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats Reputation for Innovation R & D Efforts New Facilities High Cost Structure Firefly Reputation New Market Expansion New Technology New Plant Competitor Emergence Regulatory Changes Buzzard LTD has some important strengths. Their reputation for innovation is the most important of these as they have achieved high levels of pleased customers and are regarded as "one of the world's leaders in design, manufacture and supply of innovative automotive

The Legislative Power of the US Congress Case Study

The Legislative Power of the US Congress - Case Study Example On the other hand, the Missouri statute regarding the transport of radioactive materials is also not valid because the transport of radioactive materials concerns US security issues which the federal government (and therefore Congress) has jurisdiction over with. As a matter of fact, it is the Department of Transportation which is delegated with the power to establish the guidelines for the packaging, limits of radioactivity and exposure limits of radioactive materials (Saha 293). Finally, the Missouri statute which imposes a pre-requisite of two-week counseling for marriage licenses issuance is valid because it is not in conflict with congressional legislative powers, current federal laws or is prohibited under s 10 of the US Constitution. Since the said statutes are assailed for their unconstitutionality, the federal courts should have proper jurisdiction over the first case because of it federal enactment, while the second case should be brought before the Missouri Supreme Court s ubject to review by the federal courts (Article 3, US Constitution). However, cases are not yet ripe for court determination because there is no actual legal dispute yet which concerns them (The Jurisdiction of Federal Courts). Ralph may file his case either in a Colorado federal district court or in a Colorado state court since both have concurrent jurisdiction over diversity cases or cases in which the litigants are citizens of different states.

Project 3 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Project 3 - Research Paper Example Millions of people around the world are currently building online communities through social networks to communicate their shared activities and interests as well as disseminate information. Access to information and privacy is one of the most serious ethical issues that have raised concerns about the characteristics of new media. Incidents of misconduct though breach of privacy and access of private information has been widely reported in recent times, particularly on internet and social networking sites. The issue of ethics and privacy also affects journalism as the growth of new media has ensured that journalism is undergoing a difficult transition from traditional, professional ethics to mixed media ethics with little or no control. This research project investigates privacy as an ethical issue in the digital media. The paper starts by highlighting the research principals, methods and procedures that were applied in collecting the information and reaching the findings on the topic. The paper then presents the findings about privacy as a media ethics concern in the digital media before exploring the context in which the media operates and why security issues remain a concern. Finally, the paper presents a conclusion to the research by summarizing findings and giving brief recommendation. This study utilized qualitative research because of its suitability to generate the information sought in the study. This study was about providing answers and explanations to a social issue, the issue of privacy in relation to ethics in digital media. According to Cresswell (2003), qualitative research emphasizes the process of discovering the way in which social meaning is constructed. Qualitative research is all about meanings, definitions, concepts, characteristics and descriptions of things. This research was all about finding

The role of society in human life in the Confucian, and Taoist belief Term Paper

The role of society in human life in the Confucian, and Taoist belief systems - Term Paper Example Though quite alike, the differences in the role of society in Confucian versus Taoist beliefs are most strongly focused around how interpersonal relationships are cultivated, structured and developed. The basic notion of Confucianism is the achievement of jen, which is developing a sympathetic concern for other human beings in society. Loyal and moral relationships act as the foundation for quality socialization under this philosophy. The Confucian Golden Rule is to treat others as you yourself would be treated (Henslin, 547). These basic beliefs related to jen are noticeable in the professional and personal lifestyles of those who have molded their value systems around traditional Confucian beliefs. In the workplace, Confucian values drive progressive policies that gain commitment and support from lower-level employees through a transformational leadership design. For example, wise thought and action for leader roles includes corporate citizenship and philanthropy, democratization of the workplace through less control systems, and maintaining an ethical model of behavior (Hays, 78). In societies where business leaders maintain Confucianism as the heart of their lifestyle beliefs , decentralized decision-making hierarchies are present and employees are much more engaged in development programs, thereby being more committed to achieving business goals. At the interpersonal level, life in Confucian belief systems involves having a duty and responsibility for others. In particular, friendships and family are significantly important. In family and social relationships, tolerance, establishment of mutual dialogue, and new innovative thoughts in replacement of old methods are embraced (Zhang & Veenhoven, 428). To be actively involved in social relationships when carrying a Confucian value system means to reflect upon the self each day, searching for

Rational Thought and Technological Advancement Essay Example for Free

Rational Thought and Technological Advancement Essay 1 The notion of rational thought is a very strong reason technology has become so influential in the world today. The opening of the mind influenced all ways of life and society. Major ideas blossomed like politics, governing laws, literature, art, history, and new inventions. Scientific thinking was groundbreaking. Ideas of mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and anatomy engrossed the public. The revolution of rational thought dominated society and began a transition because people began using reason to explain human and natural events, rather than the gods. Many Philosophers with their rational thought put things in motion for people to begin to question what influenced their lives in the time of Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Rational thinking gave birth to new inventors to include Hero or Heron of Alexandria. It also made its impact on the way inventions would work throughout history into modern times. Three major contributors to the theory of rational thought were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. With their search for more knowledge came newer teaching for others, which began a new revolution of education. People were questioning the major factors that ran their lives. The rights people were questioning were their choice of religion, their social standing, and their government and laws. Within these times new governments and laws were formed along with new theories of art and new technological advances. Scientific thinking was groundbreaking among Greek minds. Ideas of mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and anatomy engro ssed the public. During times like the industrial revolution technology came into play through rational thought. People began to think of ways to better themselves and took on the theory to better their work. People began to question the meanings of life and began using their minds to expand the world. Even today, rational thought is used by all of us and continues to influence society. 2 The creation of rational thought began with the Age of Enlightenment. People believed that human reason could be used to combat ignorance, superstition, and tyranny and to build a better world. Their principal targets were religion (embodied in France in the Catholic Church) and the domination of society by a hereditary aristocracy. (Brian, Paul) The citizens were open to new ideas and influenced by traders from around the world. Laws were invented and written down to express the will of their society. Although, monarchies still often ruled during the 1700s, but with less security than in earlier times. The English executed their king in 1642, France executed their king and queen (in 1793 and 1794 respectively) during the French Revolution, and other European monarchies soon fell. Royal instability suggested insecurity of the social order over which aristocracies had ruled. (McClure, Beverly) During the Age of Enlightenment politics and democracy exploded. The French Revolution began due to the fact that people were now thinking of themselves and not how they could serve others. The French Revolution, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France that had a lasting impact on French hi story and more broadly throughout Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed within three years. French society underwent an epic transformation, as feudal, aristocratic and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from radical left-wing political groups, masses on the streets, and peasants in the countryside. Old ideas about tradition and hierarchy regarding monarchs, aristocrats, and the Catholic Church were abruptly overthrown by new principles liberty, equality and fraternity. The royal houses across Europe were horrified and led a counter-crusade that by 1814 had restored the old monarchy, but many 3 major reforms became permanent. So too did antagonisms between the supporters and enemies of the Revolution, who fought it out politically over the next two centuries. People were also thinking of how they could make their individual lives better. New inventions to include the Millennium Clock, the spinning jenny, and steam powered products were realized during this time. Although steam powered products were not really realized until this time they were invented long before. Hero or Heron of Alexandria was an ancient Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. He is considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity and his work is representative of the Hellenistic scientific tradition. Hero published a well-recognized description of a steam-powered device called an aeolipile (hence sometimes called a Hero engine). Among his most famous inventions was a wind wheel, constituting the earliest instance of wind harnessing on land. He is said to have been a follower of the Atomists. Some of his ideas were derived from the works of Ctesibius. Although, much of Heros original writings and designs have been lost, but some of his works were preserved in Arab manuscripts. The first steam powered invention fully used turned up in the 18th century. Since the beginning of the 18th century, many inventors and designers had been hard at work trying to get steam to function as an industrial power source. Many technical problems stood in the way, but one inventor, James Watts, took the bull by the horns and developed a condenser, a double-acting engine and governor to make the steam engine practical as a new energy source. After the Revolution, Politicians and citizens were able to debate issues and question justice. This form of independent thinking brought great pride and self-confidence to members of 4 society. On 10 June 1789, Abbà © Sieyà ¨s moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the Communes proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so two days later, completing the process on 17 June. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of the People. Philosophy and rational thinking continued to grow throughout the world in the next few centuries. Rational thought had become the most dominant ideology in Western Civilization. Philosophers aimed to examine human happiness, self-control, and equality. Also, there was a major focus on the study of science. Understanding the world from the human required many philosophers to devote immense research in science. In turn this influenced how the western world reasoned and used rational thought. This allowed for huge successes for further Philosophy, architecture, a rt, mathematics, anatomy, botany, literature, and creativity. A few Greek philosophers named Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were rational thinkers who influenced their worlds. These three contemporary wise men influenced Western Civilization and technology with their quest for knowledge and thought, and their writings that are still widely read today! Socrates believed that knowledge was the key to good life and that knowledge led to happy citizens with good moral conduct.(Kemerling, Garth) One of the best known sayings of Socrates is I only know that I know nothing. The conventional interpretation of this remark is that Socrates wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who did wrong knew 5 no better. The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have knowledge of was the art of love, which he connected with the concept of the love of wisdom, i.e., philosophy. He never actually claimed to be wise, only to understand the path a lover of wisdom must take in pursuing it. It is debatable whether Socrates believed humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on the other, Platos Symposium (Diotimas Speech) and Republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom. His beliefs and questions angered many of his peers so much, that they convicted him of corrupting society and sentenced him to death. Plato was Socrates student and â€Å"he displays in his works his absorption in the political events and intellectual movements of his time, but the questions he raises are so profound and the strategies he uses for tackling them so richly suggestive and pr ovocative that educated readers of nearly every period have in some way been influenced by him, and in practically every age there have been philosophers who count themselves Platonists in some important respects†.(Kraut, Richard) He sought knowledge on creating a perfect society. Also, he opened a school for rational thought called the Academy. In this school, he stressed that knowledge was found through debate and the conflict created from them. There is great debate on how Plato died. There are many theories to include him dying in his sleep and dying at a wedding feast. The last of the three great Greek philosophers was Aristotle. Aristotle was a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He was a writer of logic, politics, and biology. He summarized most of the previous knowledge of philosophy into his own writings. Aristotle collected constitutions from many Greek states, researched them, and provided ideas for greater political thought. Questions arose from every 6 debate or conversation and rational thought exploded. Due to the rise of all the questions on life, and possible answers, rational thought surfaced. New centers for education began opening around the world. These centers spread new ideas including: writing and rhetoric, mathematics, innovations, arts, technologies, and medicines. Also, there was a major focus on the study of science. Understanding the world from the human required many philosophers to devote immense research in science. In turn this influenced how the western world reasoned and used rational thought. Rational Thinking began to grow. It made people begin to think of things in a whole new light, to include how their lives could be made easier with new inventions. Alexandria was the site of creative inventors and scientific researchers. Citizens there built a huge library called the House of the Muses. The library grew to include star observatories, lecture halls, and laboratories, and also held over half a million manu scripts. Rational thought allowed scientists and inventors a better understanding of the world around them. Mathematicians like Euclid and Archimedes studied geometry and higher mathematics (Encyclopedia Britannica). Archimedes also invented a screw pump that lifted water from the ground. (Noel, William) Others invented navigational instruments and mapmaking abilities for ships out at sea, built small steam engines, and even washing machines. Geographers tried to map the world, while astronomers questioned life outside the world. Alexandria was, unfortunately, destroyed by the Christians in the fourth century. (Chesser, Preston) Imagine what the world would be like if all the knowledge and 7 research had made it out of Alexandria. The information that did survive the destruction continues to help researchers to this day. Overall, rational thought is something most of us take for granted. It is from the rational thought influence that we are able to think for ourselves and make well thought out decisions. Rational thought gave the individual a new outlook on their daily lives and how they could step away from the old way of living under the heel of the church. It is from the Greek influence that we are able to think for ourselves and make rational decisions. Great minds have helped contribute to this great civilization we live in. The world has forever been changed by the ability to reason and question reality. Without the humble beginnings of rational thought our world may not be as advanced in technology as it is today. The Western world has forever been changed by the ability to reason and question reality. Many future civilizations used the thoughts of famous Greeks a nd today rational thought is more powerful than ever. The most valuable things in the world are just trinkets compared to the value of the mind. From the beginning of the age rational thought our modern civilizations have been based around how to make our lives easier with better decisions. We are accustomed to thinking of rationality as a feature of modern societies. Modernity has been accompanied by an unprecedented growth of science and the breakdown of many taboos. We are able, as our ancestors were not, to question everything, choose our leaders, and 8 build on reliable knowledge accumulated over the past few hundred years. This is why modernity appears to us as a value that must be preserved. References Brian, Paul 1998, â€Å"The Enlightment†, Washington University http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/hum_303/enlightenment.html. McClure, Beverly, â€Å"The Enlightenment, Age of Reason† Southwest Tennessee Community College http://www.westga.edu/~mmcfar/enlightenment_or_age_of_reas.htm Kemerling, Garth, â€Å"Socrates† (1997) http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/socr.htm. Kraut, Richard, Plato, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (summer 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2012/entries/plato/. Britannica, Encyclopedia, 2006, â€Å"The Elements†, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/194880/Euclid Noel, William, â€Å"The Archimedes Palimpsest†, (2006), http://archimedespalimpsest.org/about/management/ Chesser, Preston â€Å"The Burning of the Library of Alexandria†, (2002), http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/articleview.cfm?aid=9

The Individual Level Analysis For Systems Politics Essay

The Individual Level Analysis For Systems Politics Essay War at the individual level analysis differs from that of systematic levels of analysis. War at the individual level concedes directly to that of human nature. Decisions of various individual leaders can be traced to that of human nature. According to the first level of analysis, war is the result of an individual leader decision making and is ultimately up to that individual. The textbook states that, War occurs because of the choices people make, not due to inbred aggressive traits (168). It is my opinion that the majority of individuals in power have strong agendas both for the state and for personal self interests. While the first course of action by these individuals may be diplomatic in nature, they may very well succumb to the evils of armed conflict to obtain their objectives (whatever they may be). These individuals are only human and face human traits such as fear, greed, restlessness, a need for safety, and revenge. If individuals in power feel threatened, they may consider armed conflict as a solution to ease potential worries of current and future threats. According to the textbook, human beings are built for consensus, not conflict (167). War at the systematic level involves structural processes that occur on a wide scale because of distribution of power among competing states. War results at the systematic level because of repeating trends such as power cycles, power transitions, and distribution of power systems. Power cycles and power transitions can fuel tensions and international conflicts that may possibly lead to armed conflict (but not always). The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the United States of America bipolar distribution of power that resulted in the cold war is a prime example of power cycles and transitions. The causes of war can be complex and often are the result of individual as well as systematic factors such as the example given in the beginning of chapter 7. Bismarcks personal ambitions for glory as well as the systematic power cycle of Prussia best explains why war results on various levels of analysis. Prussia was at a critical point of unification and the next step was to consolidate individual German states. With an individual leader bent on state domination as well as the systematic breakdown in diplomatic solutions, bloody armed conflict ensued. In my opinion, the individual level is more useful in explaining the occurrence of war in contemporary times. The ideology and beliefs that people in power tend to lean towards determines whether or not these individuals will decide to embark on armed conflict. 7. The following characteristics determine causes of war at the state level of analysis: The geographic location of a state relative to its competitor may determine the frequency in which that state engages in conflict with its competitor. Reoccurring conflict and territorial disputes is nothing new to Israel and the Palestine people. Both reside close in geographic proximity (In fact, many Palestine people actually live within Israels borders). Since the Israel-Palestine war in 1948, both believe that the territory they occupy is rightfully theirs. Cultural values and various forms of nationalism can lead to armed conflict since it reinforces commitment to ones own heritage. Xenophobia is also another factor that can contribute to conflict. If governments are persuasive enough in nationalist rhetoric and propaganda, they can convince citizens that foreigners are a threat to the state. Governments sometimes use this strategy if domestic support of the state to govern is strained or deteriorating. Civil strife can produce massive unrest within a state simply because violence and displacement usually occurs when a state experiences a civil war. When the United States experienced civil war, it was because . Poor economic conditions may breed discontent among the less fortunate Political institutions Civil strife is the most salient factor that contributes to war because of the risks associated in a governmental collapse of authority. This could lead to some form of anarchy which may result in a chaotic governance and the states ability to keep control. Civil strife, cultural values, and poor economic conditions are prime breeding grounds for new terrorists. Sometimes I wonder why the Global North spends so much money on military expenditures when they could take a fraction of those expenditures and help build sound infrastructures in the Global South. The Global North could build schools to educate the Global South instead of building bombs and investment could jumpstart businesses instead of wars. Of course this would take time. Every dollar that is spent building new weapons could be deducted from military expenditures and transferred to investment of the Global South. If the Global North took a more liberalist stance on improving civil strife, cultural values, and poor economic conditions in the Global South, everyone involved would be much better off. The Global North would spend less money on weapons while the Global South would have minimal terrorist recruits because the standard of living would improve and thus people would be less discontent. In the end, everyone would be better off since there would be a minimal chance of conflict. 8. One of the most interesting and opposing statements in the realm of competing ideology of armed conflict is that one persons terrorist is another persons freedom fighter. There has been armed conflict of some sort of another since the dawn of time. I find it ironic that each individual and each group thinks that there side is the right side. The textbook states that, like most animals, humans instinctively defend territory they believe belongs to them. I think it is possible to take this one step further and say that humans instinctively defend ideas and ideologies that they believe belongs to them and that everyone else must except their beliefs. Since each side believes that they are right and the other is wrong it makes perfect sense that that one persons terrorist is truly another persons freedom fighter. It is sad because terrorists do not abide by the Geneva conventions. For example, when terrorists flew a jet into the world trade center, none of the terrorists wore uniforms. Some may argue that these freedom fighters could not afford them. Well obviously, these same freedom fighters were funded by Osama bin laden. The majority of people in the west vehemently oppose terrorists because of its violent nature. Who would want to get blown up or watch a family member or country man die because of some terrorists group agenda? Nobody in the established world wants to live in fear and terror. In fact, if I had to take a wild guess, no one wants to live in fear and terror, no matter if those people live in the established world or not. Some people around the world support terrorist causes because they feel sympathy for the terrorists causes and struggles. These people think that the human struggle against the establishment is as old as time itself. Sympathizers usually share same religion, ethnicity, or culture. People that live in regions that harbor terrorist organizations support these terrorists because these terrorist provide order, services, and protection to local communities. Al-Shabaab (a terrorist group in Somalia) is an key example and illustration of why terrorism is such a problem in the contemporary world, why people reverently support terrorists, and reasons why other people vehemently oppose terrorists. Al-Shabaab is responsible for suicide bombings against the Somali government, attacking nongovernmental organizations, and various media correspondents. In the last couple of years Al-Shabaab engaged in a two week gorilla like battle with the Ethiopian military (it has since withdrawn its forces from Ethiopia) and is currently attempting to overthrow the Somalia government. Al-Shabaab is even suspected of training pirates that are responsible for attacking ships and oil tankers in and out of the Gulf of Aden. Training and consulting pirates has become a major concern to western nations since it disrupts trade and puts individuals from western nations of increased risk. Somali pirates make money by holding a ships cargo and personal for ransom. Gove rnments in the west have labeled Al-Shabaab as a destabilizing force in the Somali region. Foreign investment by nongovernmental organizations has been extremely minimal because of this destabilization (which fuels a viscous cycle of even more destabilization). Somali pirates and the Al-Shabaab terrorist network may be a result of inequality in economic resources and cultural values as referred to in chapters 5 and 6. Some people may in fact support Al-Shabaab activities because they share the same cultural, ethnic, and extreme right wing religious views of the individuals that compose the terrorist group. Other terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda support Al-Shabaabs activities since both terrorists groups share similar extreme right wing religious views of Islamism. 9. A main goal of terrorism of the past was to frighten as many people as possible but not necessarily killing as many people as possible. Todays terrorists dont care as much for a public audience, rather they want to kill as many people as they possibly can with a vengeance. The new global terrorism is more frightening then previous iterations because in todays world, terrorists can use relatively primitive weapons to carry out huge and dramatic terrorists plots. Take a look at the 9/11 terrorist attacks that occurred in the United States of America. 19 Al-Qaida terrorists were able to hijack four American airplanes using nothing more than box cutters, pepper spray, and fake explosives. What the 19 Al-Qaida terrorists had working for them in their favor was the accumulation of months of planning, precise execution (with the exception of the airliner that crashed in Pennsylvania), and a little luck that there was a breakdown in communication within the United States of Americas foreign and domestic intelligence agencies. Terrorist organizations are using the intranet to communicate to a younger generation of angry and disenchanted youth. Using common video posting services such as services similar to YouTube and rogue websites, these organizations can communicate with their selected audience. Todays terrorist organizations operate in decentralized, small fractions run by local leaders. Organizations like al-Qaida may have a central cause but operates globally without the direction of any one leader. On the one hand, in order to stem terrorism, the textbook suggests that, those advocating repression see terrorism springing from the cold calculations of extremists who should be neutralized by preemptive surgical strikes (183). This strategy clearly follows that of the Bush doctrine. The ideology of the Bush doctrine led to the invasion of Afghanistan and more or less war with Iraq. On the other hand, the textbook suggests that, those who see terrorism rooted in frustrations with political oppression and relative deprivation urge negotiation and compromise (183). If I was a key U.S. presidential aid on foreign policy I would recommend the following three strategies: Aim for and destroy all terrorist infrastructure and breading grounds for training using military preemptive strikes. Shut down and freeze terrorists financial assets and revenue streams. Impose strict economic sanctions on countries who support, fund, or harbor terrorists. The potential drawbacks of implementing the preceding strategies would be the cost of human lives of innocent citizens. Women and children who have nothing to do with state sponsored terrorism would be victims of these economic sanctions and military strikes. This would be grounds for considering each strategy on a case by case basis since collateral damage should no. The war against global terrorism may never be won since there are always going to be weeds springing up wherever dissatisfaction takes root. However, global terrorism in the future may be minimized if regions within the Global South take a turn for the positive and follow into the footsteps of the Global North. Ultimately, terrorism is a nasty apple that brings devastation to all involved. Hopefully, strategies like the three listed previously will rot terrorism to the core and eradicate unconventional activities among dissidents in the Global South.

Climate Change And Creating Climate Refugees Environmental Sciences Essay

Climate Change And Creating Climate Refugees Environmental Sciences Essay Introduction 1.1 Background The world is undergoing a broad set of global changes, like changes in population density, climate, resource use, land use, biodiversity, and urbanization and globalization processes. Climate change is one of the drivers of global change, which has over the years been received strong focus by scientists, policy-makers and leaders of the world (Vitousek, 1994). At present climate change is considered as emerging global threat that not only induces physical environmental impacts but also affects the social structures, economic factors and the overall development process (Birkmann, 2010). This emerging threat has introduced a new social community named Climate Refugee especially for the affected developing nations. The UN currently states that more refugees are displaced by environmental catastrophes than wars, and the number of the climate refugee is more than 25 million which is likely to become 50 million in coming decades (Meyers, 2002). Out of those 25 million people about 10 milli on are from Africa who are directly affected by the climate change via droughts. The second largest group is from coastal areas of Asian countries, who are affected by natural disasters like cyclones, storm surges, floods, salinity and droughts (Anon, 2010). The cumulative effects of climate change exacerbate food and water insecurity, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem, environmental degradation and human insecurity through social conflict, political conflict and violence in the affected developing countries (Adger and Kelly, 1999). Hence, the socioeconomic structures are undermined in these countries where the affected people are compelled to switch over occupations for livelihood. These are the people who can no longer ensure a secured livelihood in their origin of dwelling (Mayers, 2002). Together with climate change effects, population pressure problem and hardcore poverty have induced a notable change in the whole economic structure of these countries. As a result, these countries are suffered from chronic socio-economic inequality and social instability (Barnett, 2007). Bangladesh often makes top news all over the world. However, unlike most other countries, it is not because of politics but for devastating natural catastrophes causing huge death tolls and massive destruction. This South Asian LDC, since her independence in 1971, has been struggling with a number of socioeconomic and socio-political problems such as- rapid population growth, poverty, illiteracy, gender disparity, slow economic growth, institutional inertia, political instability, violence and so on. But from last two decades she started struggling with a new problem- the adverse effects of climate change in the form of natural disasters (Miliband, 2009). Over the last two decades these disasters have become regular phenomena contributed miserable suffering to millions of inhabitants who are vulnerable to the climatic shocks (GoB, 2005). In other words, climate risk for Bangladesh is relatively higher than most other countries of the world. The Global Climate Risk Index prepared by G ermanwatch shows that Bangladesh is at top of the ranking of most affected countries by climatic extreme events over the last two decades. Table 1.1 shows the overall ranking made by Germanwatch. Table 1.1 Long term Climate Risk Index (CRI) for most affected countries for period 1990-2008 CRI 1990-2008 Country CRI Score Death toll* Deaths/thousand* Total looses in million US$ PPP* Losses per GDP in %* 1 Bangladesh 8.00 8,241 6.27 2,189 1.81 2 Myanmar 8.25 4,522 9.60 707 2.55 3 Honduras 12.00 340 5.56 660 3.37 4 Vietnam 18.83 466 0.64 1,525 1.31 5 Nicaragua 21.00 164 3.37 211 2.03 6 Haiti 22.83 335 4.58 95 1.08 7 India 25.83 3,255 0.33 6,132 0.38 8 Dominican Republic 27.58 222 2.93 191 0.45 9 Philippines 27.67 799 1.11 544 0.30 10 China 28.58 2,023 0.17 25,961 0.78 * Annual Source: Germanwatch, 2010 that the most common disasters are flood and cyclone. Recent IPCC assessment reports (TAR, 2001 and AR4, 2007) also reveal that over the last two decades both of the above-mentioned disaster-events have become more frequent and devastating for Bangladesh. It is learnt from IPCC reports that 5-10% increase in wind speed is very likOn basis of above-mentioned table, it is easy to apprehend why Bangladesh was cited numerous occasions in COP15 held in Copenhagen in 2009. At present this country is more likely to exposed towards climatic extreme events than most of the countries in the world (UNFCCC, 2009). These events, in form of natural disasters range from ravaging cyclones to devastating floods (Muhammad, 2007). Following Table 1.2 provides an overall idea on most devastating disasters occurred in Bangladesh since early twentieth century. This table shows Table 1.2 Disaster-log in Bangladesh since early 1900s Disasters Time Disasters Time Epidemic 1918 Cyclone 24-5-1985 Drought 1943 Flood 22-7-1987 Cyclone October 1942 Flood August 1987 Cyclone 28-5-1963 Flood June 1988 Cyclone May 1965 Cyclone 29-4-1991 Cyclone June 1965 Cyclone 15-5-1995 Flood July 1968 Flood 5-7-1998 Cyclone 12-11-1970 Flood September 2000 Flood July 1974 Flood 20-6-2004 Drought July 1983 Cyclone 15-11-2007 Flood May 1984 Cyclone 27-05-2009 Source: EMDAT likely during the cyclone-season in Bangladesh that would eventually enhance storm surge and coastal flooding, while 10-20% increases of wind intensity can cause floods both in coast and inlands as the cyclone makes land fall (Agarwala, 2003). It has been assessed that an increase of 2 ° C temperature and a 0.3 m sea level rise would cause a cyclone in the costal belt of Bangladesh as strong as cyclone of 1991; furthermore, such a cyclone is likely to result in a 1.5 m higher storm surge that may inundate 20% more land than 1991 cyclone (Ali, 1996). The most recent example of costal cyclone as possible effect of climate change is SIDR which battered the coastal belt in Bangladesh on 15th November 2007. The wind speed was about 220 to 240 km/hour and at least 3,113 people were known dead and more than 10,000 were missing; the damage due to this disaster had been around US$ 2.3 million (EMDAT, 2009). The intensity of SIDR was not less than the 1991 cyclone in some part of the coastal areas and the impact was even more than that. Furthermore, on 27th May 2009, another devastating cyclone named AILA hit the South-western part of Bangladesh and West Bengal of India, which exacerbated the suffering for the affected people in Bangladesh; although an early warning system enabled the evacuation of an estimated 2.7 million people to higher ground and cyclone shelter-houses (BBC, 2009). It is predicted that a single meter rise of sea level would inundate more than 18% of the coastal belt and will affect 11% of the total countrys population. Two-third of the whole country is only 10 m above the sea level; therefore, about 13 million of the total population may likely to be homeless and become environmental refugees as the victim of climate changing process (Huq et al, 1999). Khulna and Barisal, the costal divisions of Bangladesh are relatively disaster-prone, where about 3.2 million people are at risk and about one-eighth of the countrys agricultural lands and more than 8,000 communication networks are likely to be affected due to climate change effects (Parvin, 2010). 1.2 Statement of the problem About one third of the territory of Bangladesh is delimited as coastal areas which are combined of distinctive opportunities, diversified threats and vulnerabilities (HarunOrRashid, 2009). It is because coastal areas possess different geo-physical and environmental characteristics that distinguish the coastal zone from rest of the country. These distinctive characteristics are interplay of tidal regime, salinity in soil and water, cyclone and storm surge; with economic and social implications on the population (PDO-ICZMP, 2003). Hence, such identical geo-physical pattern has introduced a completely different livelihood pattern, where people are involved with selected coastal economic activities like fishing, salt production, fry collection from the sea and resource collection from the adjacent mangrove forest (Ahmed, 2003, Islam, 2004). Although the coastal areas are much more fertile land for agricultural production, these areas are relatively income-poor compared to the rest of the country. Average per capita GDP (at current market price) in the coastal zone was US$ 402 in 2008, compared to US$ 621 for the whole country on average (GoB, 2009; CDP, 2009). There are ten different ethnic communities living in the coastal zones and they have complete different cultures and livelihood patterns. Along with the nontribal people, those ethnic communities completely depend on the coastal natural resources for their livelihood (Kamal, 2001). Their despair and dream, plight and struggle, vulnerability and resilience are uniquely revolved round in an intricate ecological and social setting which make their livelihoods distinctive from other parts of the country to a considerable extent. The Government of Bangladesh has already recognized coastal zone as areas of enormous potentials. In contrast, these areas are lagging behind in socio-economic development and vulnerable to different natural disasters and environmental degradation (Sevaraju, 2006). For a LDC like Bangladesh where the climate change takes a shape of natural disaster not only affects the socio-economic condition of coastal communities but also hinders obtaining an optimal GDP growth (ADPC, 2007). Climate change poses a significant threat for Bangladesh, particularly the projected climate change effects include sea level rise, higher temperature, enhanced monsoon precipitation and run-off, potentially reduced dry season precipitation and increase in cyclone intensity in this region (Agrawala, 2003). Those threats would induce serious impediments to the socioeconomic development of Bangladesh including coastal areas. A subjective ranking of key climate change effects for coastal Bangladesh identifies cyc lone and sea level rise as being of the highest priority in terms of severity, certainty and urgency of impact (Parvin, 2009). National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) and other scholars have identified the coastal areas of Bangladesh as one of the most affected areas in the world due to the threats of climate change effects (GoB 2005). In the southwestern part of Bangladesh the physical isolation of coastal communities makes them highly resource-dependent available around the coast and adjacent mangrove forest (the Sundarbans), which reduces their opportunities to access to alternative livelihoods indeed. These hindrances make the coastal communities vulnerable to any disruption, especially to natural catestrophes. As a result, households in coastal communities suffer from imbalance of social and economic powers, lack of participation in decision-making, limited or zero asset ownership, and laws and regulations influencing peoples ability to use assets or access to resources (Pomeroy et al., 2006). 1.3 Justification of the study There are only a few number of studies have been conducted on coastal Bangladesh. These studies are mainly conducted on hazard warning and evacuation system (Paul and Dutt, 2010), health security due to disaster (Ray-Bennet et al., 2010), physical injuries during cyclones (Paul, 2009), and coastal hazards and community-coping method (Parvin, 2009). So, most of these studies focused on the coping and adaptation mechanisms in coastal areas. However, we hardly find any study that addressed the socioeconomic vulnerability in local level of coastal zone, especially in the southwestern part of Bangladesh. Hence, without identifying local-level vulnerability pattern the suggested coping or adaptation mechanism is likely to be least effective in reality. In this study we attempt to fill up the knowledge gap by identifying quantitative local-level vulnerability at first; then we try to look for optimal adaptation options based on empirical relationship between vulnerability and important soci oeconomic parameters. We selected Koyra upazila  [1]  as our study area, which one of the most disaster-prone areas in southwestern coastal zone of Bangladesh. 1.4 Research questions and objectives of the study Considering all the above-mentioned facts, we proceed with the discovery of logical answers of following research questions; What is the symptom of climate change in the study area? Which major climatic factors constitute for climate change here? Which factors exacerbate such vulnerability? Is there any single factor or multiple factors? What is the nature and magnitude of relationship between this vulnerability and socioeconomic factors in the study area? What are the possible adaptation options in terms of capacity for the vulnerable households in study area? The above-mentioned research questions are addressed by the study objectives. Hence, the main study objectives are; To understand and figure out the manifestation of climate change in the study area, To quantify socioeconomic vulnerability and assess the nature and magnitude of the relationship between vulnerability and major socioeconomic parameters of the study area, and To identify and recommend the optimal adaptation options in terms of capacity of households in the study area while addressing socioeconomic vulnerability. 1.5 Outline of this study This study consists of nine chapters. Let us have a glimpse at the brief contents of all the chapters chronologically. Chapter one is introduction. It provides an overall scenario on Bangladeshs status in relations with climate change effects. We briefly discuss about the problem statement and then we identify the possible knowledge gap of socioeconomic vulnerability in the study area. We conclude this chapter by mentioning a number of research questions, which are addressed by three main objectives of this study. In Chapter two we focus on the theoretical background and theoretical framework for this study. Under theoretical background we mention and briefly discuss relevant literatures in accordance with our study objectives. Then we depict the theoretical framework for this study, which is used for quantifying socioeconomic vulnerability of the study area. We mention about the methodology of this study in Chapter three. In this chapter we focus on types of research that we have adopted in this study. Then in accordance with study objectives we mention associated data type, collection techniques and data sources. We also mention the sampling method and sampling size. The construction of vulnerability index is discussed in this chapter. Finally we conclude by mentioning the impediments those we faced while accomplishing this study. Chapter four deals with the description of study area Koyra. We mention important information about geographical location, administration, topographic, physiographic and socioeconomic condition. We include a Disaster Calendar for our study area that we made by collecting information from households. Chapter five deals with identification of climate change effects and quantification of socioeconomic vulnerability at local level of study area. In this we show possible climate change effects in the study area based on empirical data and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) findings. Later we quantify vulnerability for each union  [2]  by applying the Vulnerability Index. We show union-wise vulnerability with the help of maps. Once we have quantified vulnerability, we conduct a number of econometric analyses in Chapter six in order to show relationship between vulnerability and important socioeconomic parameters of study area. We mention the major findings from analyses in two different tables. We also put brief explanation of models and variables used in this study. In Chapter seven we discuss the major findings obtained from model analyses in elaborated way. Here we also mention the possible reasons behind the nature and extent of relationship between vulnerability and socioeconomic parameters of study area. At the end of this chapter we check the consistency of vulnerability index by applying an alternative approach. Subsequent regression coefficients of alternative approach are also tested and compared with the old model results. Based on the results of relationship mentioned in chapter six and seven; we recommend the optimal adaptation options for the affected people through brief description in Chapter eight. We also draw few of our recommendations on basis of correlation between different variables. The existing adaptation options in study area are also mentioned in Chapter eight. We conclude this study in Chapter nine. We summarize major findings from this study in a nut shell. Besides, we focus on shortcomings of the approach we used to quantify vulnerability. In fine we mention the issues that we did not address in this study where further research can be conducted.